I've seen bear tracks as well, but never encountered a bear here. We've also seen deer, turkeys, owls, porcupines, raccoons, and eagles while on this trail. Also a liquid fueled giant, the Titan was the first multi-stage ICBM put on operational alert. Thus, based upon the holding of the Adams case, supra, and the statutes involved it is our opinion that the federal government has not acquired exclusive or partial criminal jurisdiction over the lands we are here concerned with for two reasons: First, because under the present statute the Washington legislature has tendered concurrent jurisdiction only; second, because the federal government has not purported to accept any legislative jurisdiction whatsoever by filing an acceptance of jurisdiction with the governor in accordance with 40 U.S.C., 255 (1958). For missile launching, the building's roof was retracted, the missile raised to a vertical position, fueled, and then fired. The museum has an unassuming presence and is therefore easy to overlook. It was located 150-feet from the missile structure and connected to it by an underground tunnel. The sites were at Odessa, Quincy, and Warden, Washington. Groundbreaking for the three Titan I sites near Larson Air Force Base took place on December 1, 1959. Otherwise a pretty wooded walk that we were able to take our leashed dogs. For the Atlas the fueling was done with the missile on the surface, which exposed it and made it vulnerable. There is no light in the silos or tunnels. Thanks Don!" Over the course of 13 tense days, the world watched the stand-off between the United States and the Soviet Union, sure that the end was nigh. The missiles had to be fueled before launch with an extremely flammable combination of highly refined kerosene and liquid oxygen. Each site was staffed by three squadron airmen and two officers. Time elapsed for a 5,500 mile flight: 33 minutes. The tour is about an hour long and the guides are very friendly and knowledgeable. By the mid-1960s solid-fuel Minuteman missiles replaced the liquid-fueled missiles. The 11 sold to private parties remain today private property and are not open to public visit. According To Wallin, This Site Can Withstand And Survive Any Nuclear Blast. Nestled between the two buildings was the cylindrical entry portal, 72 feet deep and 38 feet in diameter, that controlled access to the underground complex. Add dive. OFFICE HOURS: 8:00 AM - 5:00 PM Monday - Friday Closed Weekends & State Holidays. The worst missile-construction accident killed 53 workers in an August 1965 explosion at an Arkansas Titan II base. Then-President John F. Kennedy was apprised of the development, ordering a naval blockade around the island in an attempt to keep any more Soviet aid from reaching Cuba. In 2002, Roger Erdman, an auditor with the Washington Department of Licensing, traveled to site six to audit the fuel records of long-haul trucker Ralph Benson, who owned the site. Air Force security police patrolled the sites and maintained security. Crews of five airmen and officers worked the silos around the clock and could launch a warhead within 15 minutes of receiving the order. Both were domed structures built of reinforced concrete and buried 10 to 17 feet beneath the surface. It's also a quick drive from deer park so if you live locally and just want a quick hike after work, this is the place to go! The silos in Eastern Washington were affiliated with Fairchild Air Force Base and under the command of the 567th Strategic Missile Squadron. Honorable Paul KlasenProsecuting AttorneyGrant CountyEphrata, Washington. Took our pup with us and she loved it. . Quite a few sandy sections. The Titan I Missile was the US's first Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) stored in underground silos, and the first with a multistage propulsion system, which gave it greater range than Atlas missiles. The 568th Strategic Missile Squadron complexes were underground with super-hardened silos. They were built to launch weapons and protect their crews. It was a liquid-fueled missile that delivered a nuclear warhead more than 100 times more powerful than the atomic bomb dropped at Nagasaki in 1945. As we close out the year, 2022 has come and gone in the blink of an eye. The intercontinental ballistic missiles served as a warning to the Soviet Union that any attack on the United States would bring about its destruction. Benson was charged with murder, convicted, and received a 32-year sentence. This one-of-a kind museum gives visitors a rare look at the technology used by the United States to deter nuclear war. You have advised us that the Air Force has not accepted concurrent jurisdiction, in so far as you have been able to determine, pursuant to the federal statute mentioned above. . Site nine, near Reardan, remained in the governments hands, first passing to the United States Bureau of Mines, who expanded the site. Dives. Theres several loops of various lengths. Improve Titan Missile Silo. Part of a series of articles titled Site six, near Davenport, also has a colorfulbut tragic history. All of the loops connect so you dont have to walk the whole thing in one go. A launch control room was buried about 17-feet below the surface in a hardened structure. SPOKANE Back in 1961 the U.S. Air Force, without any attempt at secrecy or stealth, hauled nine long-range ballistic missiles by truck from California to Eastern Washington. The Titan was developed in case the Atlas encountered developmental problems and it also created competition between the programs. With its proximity to the Soviet Union, the area made it an ideal location to build silos. Easy to navigate the trails. Saw deer and turkeys. Surface temps in the summer can reach 100 degrees, but as soon as you head down the escape shaft, it cools down immensely. SAHUARITA, ARIZ. The Titan II missile museum here is one of 54 former Titan II missile silos across the US, but it's the only one where tourists can go underground, sit at the controls, and . If you have any interest in military, cold war or even star trek for that matter you should really visit this place. The site is fairly remote from any major cities, but as luck would have it, it ended up being near our route from Portland to Spokane, Washington. Royal City, Washington. This trail is great for hiking, horseback riding, and running, and it's unlikely you'll encounter many other people while exploring. By locating the Titan II bases in Arizona, Kansas, and Arkansas, the Air Force achieved a wider national dispersal pattern. In May of 1965, the nine sites were taken out of service and decommissioned shortly thereafter. Both the Atlas and the Titan I missiles had been rushed into development in 1959. Fairchild Air Force Base and the missile silos around Eastern Washington were standing by, their payloads ready to launch at a moments notice. On January 1, 1965, the outmoded Titan I missile bases stood down. . The only remaining Titan II transcontinental ballistic missile. That made for a more efficient missile, which resulted in increased range and a larger payload. The court then concluded that the term "partial" jurisdiction as used in the federal statute included the term "concurrent" jurisdiction as used in the state statutes. A little over two years later, the first Titan I's became operational, based out of Lowry Air Force Base in Denver, Colorado in April 1962. Tour Safety Notice: Everyone in your party must be able to safely descend and ascend 55 stairs (there is no elevator access to the underground silo). The intercontinental ballistic missiles were located in the central and eastern areas of the state. At the conclusion of the first and second stage firings, the engines and fuel tanks for those sections dropped. Generally considered an easy route, it takes an average of 1 h 38 min to complete. For 13 nerve-racking days, the world waited on edge, unsure if the two major superpowers would go to war. Titan II Development The Titan II development program grew out of a 1959 upgrade program which considered adding an in-silo launch capability and improved first and second stage. The specifications for each stage are given below. Eighteen intercontinental ballistic missiles installed near Moses Lake and Spokane were a significant deterrence element. Length 5.1 miElevation gain 177 ftRoute type Loop. . The Titan I was quite vulnerable to nuclear attack. the parts were linked by underground passageways. In October 1957, Congress authorized the Air Force to deploy four Titan I squadrons. Like Atlas, Titan Is liquid cryogenic fuel was a severe drawback. Watch for moose and give them their space. Trail is also a bit too straight. I would visit again. The Cuban Missile Crisis, a stand-off between the United States and the Soviet Union, almost brought Earth to the brink of destruction. Citation: https://www.airforcebase.net/trips/titan/titan.html Overall a nice spot to walk through the woods. Each squadron consisted of nine missiles evenly divided among three launch complexes. The Washington sites had a high incidence of accidents, but no deaths. consisted of nine separate launch facilities, each housing a single missile. The inner area included a reinforced concrete launch-operations building that was underground except for its exposed roof. No marine life has been added to this dive site. You already added a dive here, on this date. Military basing included radars, fighter-interceptors, long-range bombers, submarines, Nike missiles, and intercontinental ballistic missiles. The commander saw to the sites effective operation and had control of the missile launch. In the Midwest dozens of NIKE bases sit tucked away and abandoned on the outskirts of large cities such as Philadelphia and Washington DC. Ian Frazier, Great Plains, 1989. The Air Force solicited bids for the second ICBM in May 1955 and the following October awarded the Glenn L. Martin Aircraft Company of Baltimore, Maryland a contract to develop the new Titan I (SM-68A) ICBM. ALLTRAILS and the AllTrails Mountain Design are registered trademarks of AllTrails, LLC in the United States as well as certain other jurisdictions. A concise summary of the events surrounding the decision to begin the Titan program is Frank Robert Futrells, Ideas, Concepts, Doctrine: Basic Thinking in the United States Air Force 19071960, vol. There is no nearby re-compression chamber. 1125 Washington St SE PO Box 40100 Olympia, WA 98504 (360) 753-6200 The nearby power house was 60 feet high, 127 feet in diameter, and contained generators and the power distribution system. The launch sequence took approximately 15 minutes. RCW 37.04.020 provides in part: "Concurrent jurisdiction with this state in and over any land so acquired by the United States shall be, and the same is hereby, ceded to the United States for all purposes for which the land was acquired; . Only saw a few people and a couple of horses at the beginning of the trail. In 1959, Fidel Castro, a leftist revolutionary, seized control of the nation of Cuba and quickly allied himself with the Soviet Union, asking for both economic and military aid. Below, people now dive the old Titan I silo in Washington state. The sun did peek out though!, Fun but deep snow, come prepared for an uneven path with the snow pack at the moment! Visitors to the Titan missile museum in Arizona can sit at the now decommissioned controls of the intercontinental ballistic missile once built to attack Russia with devastating nuclear force. It was known that the targets were in the Soviet Union. .". For those interested in visiting an intercontinental ballistic missile base, there is the Titan Missile Museum 15 miles south of Tucson, Arizona. A colorful but less reliable source is Ernst G. Schwiebert, A History of the U.S. The post-Cold War use of the Davenport site witnessed gruesome violence. Page3]] which have been made since the enactment of this statute are subject to the consent given by it. Missile site construction was dangerous work. Amazingly awesome experience. The Titan technical specifications came from Chronology of the Ballistic Missile, Organization 19451990 (Norton, AFB, CA: History Office, Ballistic Missile, Organization, 1990), appendices 3 and 4; Rockets, Missiles, Spacecraft, DMS Market. Well worth the drive from Phoenix. . However, the state of Washington, in exercising its jurisdiction, may not act in a manner which will embarrass the federal government in the exercise of the powers and functions incident to the public purpose to which the lands are devoted. Today, the Center is housed in site six, and Davenport uses it to house his research. Easy, mostly flat trail. What was once one of Americas most top secret places is now a National Historic Landmark, fulfilling its new mission of bringing Cold War history to life for millions of visitors from around the world. The nine Atlas E sites went out of service in March 1965 and deactivated in June 1965. Want to report conditions for this trail? The first successful test of a Titan took place in January of 1960. Getting into the base is no easy task, and it probably shouldn't be since it was built to withstand. 2.4M views, 1.4K likes, 25 loves, 47 comments, 258 shares, Facebook Watch Videos from Discovery: One tiny mistake could cost them their country. Just a few years before the Cuban Missile Crisis, the construction of 18 missile silos was commissioned, armed with ICBMs, around the Spokane and Eastern Washington area, and now the missiles were aimed at Cuba. Award winning science fiction author Jay Lake took a trip to a remote part of Washington state to visit an abandon Titian 1 missile silo. Benson was convicted of Erdmans murder and sentenced to prison, where he died in 2004. Visitors to this site can see the more advanced Minuteman system. The Power Dome alone is 125' in diameter with about a 65' center ceiling. Russell Welcomes the Tenth Calvary, Fort F. E. Warren becomes an Air Force Installation, F.E. Ballistic Missiles (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1964). In 1956 the Air Force decided that all of the Titan I missiles should be based in super-hardened silos buried deep underground. The LGM-25C Titan II was the last liquid-fueled intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) built by the United States. .". The sites were auctioned off, with all but one passing into private handswhere they remain to this day. In time, an arms race centered around atomic weapons began. . Russell Days, The post near Cheyenne is formally named Fort D. A. Russell, Fort Russell Welcomes Home the Third Cavalry, Fort D.A. FIND YOUR WAY OUTSIDE is a trademark of AllTrails, LLC. 195 degrees C. It had to be stored in special refrigerated tanks and pumped aboard the missile before it was fired. Top editors give you the stories you want delivered right to your inbox each weekday. Today the National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety conducts noise tests at the largely intact site. Some parts had pretty deep sand, but it wasnt an issue. Larson Air Force Base Sites, Vicinity Moses Lake. The Titan I could hold a W38 or W49 warhead with explosive power of 3.75 megatons or 1.44 megatons respectively. More than 2,500 feet of corrugated steel tunnel, 9 feet in diameter and buried 40 feet beneath the surface, connected all the buildings within the complex. In four years the Titan I and Atlas E became obsolete. Adjacent to the launch structure were storage tanks for the liquid fuel. Access your favorite topics in a personalized feed while you're on the go. Nine Atlas E missile sites became operational in September 1961 under the control of the 567th Strategic Missile Squadron. Titan missile base for sale (google maps). Fairchild Air Force Base Atlas E Sites, Vicinity Spokane. With their 6,300-mile range, the Air Force based the Titan Is between Colorado and Washington state. Martin built its Titan production facility outside of Denver, Colorado. Two types of Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles were installed in Washington state. Fairchild and the missile silos were able to breathe easier. The federal government does not have exclusive criminal jurisdiction over the Titan missile bases in Grant county, nor does it have concurrent jurisdiction, since it has not complied with applicable federal law. It's worth it for the colors alone. Originally a fence surrounded the five acre inner area, but it was later replaced with a fence enclosing the entire 20-acres. Remember 2 is 1 and 1 is none. Its perfect for a quick but meaningful afternoon outing. Although the worlds eyes were on Cuba, people around the Spokane area were playing their part. A new phrase, mutually assured destruction, was coined to describe this scenario. ice and comfortably cool evening hike. Others were situated in Deer Park, Newman Lake, Sprague, Lamona, Davenport, Wilbur, Egypt and Reardan. During the Cold War, Washington state became an important military defensive and deterrence location. In April 1959 the Army Corps of Engineers began supervising the construction of the first Titan I launch facilities at Lowry AFB, Colorado. Page2]] needful buildings; . A major, the Missile Combat Crew Commander, was in charge. A Fairchild site experienced a fueling accident during a launch test. Easy 4.2 (111) Missile Silo Park. It was cryogenic, meaning it had to be kept at an extremely low temperature, generally around. Dusty with lots of sandy parts that are hard to walk through. Within the silo was a steel framework that housed both the missile and the elevator that carried it to the surface. The worst missile-construction accident killed 53 workers in an August 1965 explosion at an Arkansas Titan II base. 2 tank dives going on now for $199.95 Missile Silo Diver Specialty Certification: starting at $65.00 ( details) This dive is both a deep dive and a night dive. The trucks carried. This intact base is open to the public. Long straight sections. Site 9 near Reardan was retained by the federal government and transferred to the United States Bureau of Mines. Definitely a little dusty, even after the rain. The Titan II was deployed in a 19 configuration. Intelligence Reports (1967); Missiles, DMS Market Intelligence Reports (1987). (KOTA) By Sunday Miller. Museum director: Backbone of Fort D.A. This type of storage was called coffin since the missile sat in a horizontal position. Each of the nine sites was a 20-acre facility with a five-acre inner launch and control area. The abandoned Nike Nuclear Missile Site S-13/14 outside of Seattle is such a place. They are deep and there is silt on the beams. Drag the red marker or modify the GPS coordinates below, ORDERED BY DISTANCE, WITHIN A RANGE OF 25KM, Do Sharks Attack Divers? By clicking Sign up, you agree to receive marketing emails from Insider He became a suspect in other murders, but was not charged. Each silo housed an Atlas E Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM), equipped with a four-megaton nuclear warhead, much more powerful than the bombs dropped on Hiroshima. The Atlas E was the first intercontinental ballistic missile developed and then deployed in the United States. The antennas were approximately 1,300 feet from the farthest silo. Later that number increased to 12 squadrons, evenly split between Titan I and Titan II. They were based out of Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Arizona (18), McConnell Air Force Base in Kansas (18) and Little Rock Air Force Base in Arkansas (18). By 1965 these missiles were outmoded and the bases closed. Photos (54) Directions. The sites were only hardened to 100 psi (pounds per square inch). Several hundred feet away were the control room and power house. We are your exclusive source to dive the abandoned Titan I ICBM complex near Royal City, WA. The Titan Nuclear Missile This Titan missile silo complex is much larger than the Atlas silo that I dove previously. Look for a local dive shop or dive club in your area if you want to go see some of these cool places for yourself. The Titan I (SM-68A) program began in January 1955 and took shape in parallel with the Atlas (SM-65/HGM-25) intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). Tell your friends about this dive site on: Facebook Twitter. The 568th Strategic Missile Squadron was officially activated on 1 April 1961 as a 4170th Strategic Wing unit. Corps of Engineers, Alexandria, VA (hereafter Corps of Engineers Research Collection). The Titan I is displayed at Building 596 near the massive hangar. Your email address will not be published. Titan Missile Silo (GC4TA0C) was created by KC7MEL on 11/18/2013. The radar was built by Bell Telephone, Laboratories in Allentown, Pennsylvania, and the guidance computer by, Remington Rand UNIVAC in St. Paul, Minnesota, Titan was the United States first true multistage ICBM. Green Valley, Arizona 85614. I felt like an adventuresome 12 year old walki, ng in to a labyrinth netherworld. It must be noted, however, that hereinbefore we have been discussing only that criminal jurisdiction which the federal government might acquire from the state of Washington and not those jurisdictional powers which the federal government already has by virtue of the United States Constitution. Titan I Summary. I cant recommend a visit to this museum enough. But it's so pretty right now. Here are some maps showing the locations of U.S. Minuteman III ICBM silo's along with coordinates. It also had much more of the original equipment inside. Dry suits are best, but a thick wet suit with gloves and hood can work. The flight of a Titan I missile to a Soviet Union target would take 33 minutes. That's more than 12,000 square feet of open space. Generally considered an easy route, it takes an average of 1 h 38 min to complete. I didnt any other people. Would definitely recommend to anyone. The Martin Marietta SM-68A/HGM-25A Titan I was the United States' first multistage intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), in use from 1959 until 1962. 20th Century Castles, LLC has sold 60 properties. A Minuteman site at Ellsworth Air Force Base South Dakota includes the silo with missile. Nothing dynamic, no great scenic payoffs, just a nice, mostly flat and dusty walk in the woods with the family and Yorkie. This is a collection of the Titan I missile silo locations. Titan II's were operational for twenty-four years, starting in June 1963 and lasting through June 1987. The Air Force's goal in launching the Titan program was twofold: one, to serve as a backup should Atlas fail; and two, to develop a large, two-stage missile with a longer range . Though the SM-68A was operational for only three years, it spawned numerous follow-on models that were a part of the U.S. arsenal and space launch capability. I would recommend the tour to anyone who is interested in our nations history, military and ways that technology has been used. Mosquitos are starting to emerge so remember to bring your bug spray! When auditor Erdman did not return, a police visit to the missile complex found blood and crime evidence. Make sure to bring your own and bring a backup. Notes: The two Titan I squadrons at Lowry were placed in service as the 848th and 849th Strategic Missile Squadrons. The U.S. General Services Administration auctioned off the complexes and the Larson sites went into private ownership. (Emphasis supplied.). When the study began, both the WDD and Ramo-Wooldridge were leery of becoming overly reliant on Atlas. Despite a short life, the Atlas and Titan programs were proving grounds for future intercontinental ballistic missiles. At the Titan Missile Museum, near Tucson, Arizona, visitors journey through time to stand on the front line of the Cold War. a Aerozine 50 was composed of equal parts unsymmetrical dimethyihydrazine and hydrazine. It's a Small size geocache, with difficulty of 1.5, terrain of 1.5. Image; Image. Op. "What and amazing experience! US Uses Atomic Bombs on Japan to End WWII, USSR Tests the largest Nuclear Weapon Ever Built, Everyone in your party must be able to safely descend and ascend 55 stairs (there is no elevator access to the underground silo). If you are traveling by RV, you can camp fairly inexpensively at the. Thanks Undersea Adventures in Kennewick." In four years the Titan I and Atlas E became obsolete. Perfect for family hikes with little kids. Previous . The Quincy (Royal City) complex is now flooded and has been used by highly skilled divers for dive adventures. Published: Oct. 22, 2019 at 6:19 PM PDT. Accidents caused some construction delays at the Washington sites. The best overview of the early days of the Titan program is Alfred Rockefeller, History of Titan 19541959, in the files of the Ballistic Missile Organization, History Office, Norton AFB, California. Please be advised masks are recommended but not required. The water temp is in the mid-50s. It was first deployed in 1961. . Op. The innovative, two stage rocket design could deliver a warhead 6,300 miles. By entering the Museum facility and/or participating in a Museum activity or event, you consent to and authorize without restriction or compensationthe possible use of your image and your accompanying groups image appearing in photograph, audio, video or other formats which may be included in future media or marketing. Based on the committees recommendation, in April 1955 Secretary of the Air Force Harold Talbott authorized the WDD to begin work on a second ICBM. They were built of reinforced concrete that ranged in thickness from 2 to 3 feet. The 82-foot-tall missile had a speed reaching nearly 16,000 miles per hour. Of the 18 silos commissioned, nine were in the Spokane area. Organization, History Office, Norton AFB, CA. Since that time there have been hundreds of Atlas, Titan, Minuteman and Peacekeeper sites constructed all the way from Texas to North Dakota, New Mexico to Montana. No conditions reported in the past 7 days. Propulsion: The Titan ICBMs were two-stage, liquid fuel missiles. Wouldn't drive here just for this trail, but if you live nearby it's a nice place to walk. We did the short C hike :). They are closed to visitors. These are MAJOR nuclear war targets, each one of these silo's will be hit with minimum one warhead with a fairly large yield as part of a Russian counterforce attack. The Atlas E and Titan I missiles were installed, and during 1961-1962, the ICBM bases became operational. The Titan II was the largest ICBM ever deployed by the U.S. Air Force. It was also very labor intensive to operate. However, locked up since 2016, this silo has since become an abandoned time warp. Very informative and interactive tour by Steve and Marsha. Read on for a look at this chilling artifact of the Cold War. The following month the WDD directed its systems engineering and technical direction (SE/TD) contractor, the Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation, to institute a study of alternate ICBM configurations. Dusty trail but quiet and peaceful. But watch out the first tenth mile on trail to the east, its a minefield of dog poop. The launch crews raised the antennas above ground as they readied the missile for firing. Of the 12 Washington sites, 11 became private property and one remained in government use. Facts and Figures, Worlds Deepest Shipwreck Discovered in the Philippines, Wonder Reef, Gold Coasts New Dive Attraction, 110-year-old Shipwreck Found in the Icy Waters of Antarctica. The 147-foot-deep silo is open to the public and is located just outside Tucson, Arizona. The most important improvement was solid fuel. Former Titan I missile site sells for $119,000. The Titan II had several notable accidents during its long service. Be mindful of horses and riders. Beautiful trail, but not ideal for cross-country skiing today, perhaps with a little more snow? The entire complex was buried deep beneath the ground, and all. No images have been added for this dive site. Add as buddy for this dive? This trail is great for hiking, horseback riding, and running, and it's . This allowed the Titan II to launch within about a minute, a considerable upgrade over the Titan I's 15 minute launch response time. In January 1955 the ICBM Scientific Advisory Committee reviewed the WDDs findings and recommended that the Air Force pursue an alternate ICBM configuration, most probably one with a two-stage propulsion system. . Subsequently, all of the Titan I launch sites were built to withstand overpressures of 100 psi. For many, it was Write CSS OR LESS and hit save. Walk in the footsteps of the crews who served at this historic missile site and see what to expect from the 45-minute guided tour and the self-guided topside tour. What a great piece of history! They were deactivated in March 1965. Trail was dry. The flat, wide-open spaces of Eastern and Central Washington were also appealing, making missiles easier to launch. It was nice in that there were different length loops to walk that were well marked. Trail signs not easy to follow if you don't take a picture of the map at the beginning of the trail. They were completed in 1961 and the sites declared operational in 1962. . Trail was good :) got rained out so didnt do the whole 5 mile trail, but I enjoyed it nonetheless! Adjacent to each silo were the propellant storage and equipment terminal buildings, both of which were buried under 17 to 24 feet of earth. as well as other partner offers and accept our, Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories.

Mental Health Retreat Canberra, Summerland Isle Of Man Location, Female Celebrities Who Weigh 200 Pounds, By Learning The Language Of The River, The Speaker Gains, Articles T